In our inaugural Decolonial Dialogues exhibition, Mat Salleh (Meng-)amok: Uncovering Indigenous Resistance in the Scramble for Borneo, Student Curator Diyanah Nasuha interrogates the contested terrains of resistance and power that erupted into the Mat Salleh Rebellion (1895 to 1903). How might we (re)read the figure of Datu Mohammed Salleh bin Datu Balu, who spearheaded the indigenous resistance against the imposition of poll-tax by the British North Borneo Chartered Company administration, beyond his monolithic portrayals as anti-colonial rebel or Malaysia’s fallen national hero? Delve into the insidious depths of the British colonial administration's imperial conquest, which went further than mere physical violence and territorial acquisition from the Brunei and Sulu Sultanates. On display at the Singapore/Malaysia Collection (Central Library, NUS) is a small selection of materials that provide a glimpse into the British Empire’s epistemic violence of knowledge production and control—a mechanism that perpetuated colonial hegemony, and more.
Centuries before the dawn of the modern age—even before the voyages of early European explorers who circumnavigated the globe—the world was already a surprisingly interconnected place. From Arabia to China, the different regions of Asia's vast civilisations hummed with commerce, international diplomacy, and the brisk exchange of ideas as its merchants, scholars, missionaries, and holy men bridged vast distances, braving the high seas and the desert sands. Asia flourished as the wellspring of science, philosophy, and religion, linked together by a network of religious, commercial, and intellectual ties.
But in the 15th century, Europeans began seeking direct sea routes to the fabled Orient, the source of the most precious commodities like spices, driven by the stagnation of their own societies during the early medieval period. Portugal and Spain, leveraging their proximity and greater access to Muslim knowledge, took the lead in long-distance voyaging with the British and French in close pursuit. Their maritime expeditions extended Europe's reach and influence, fuelling a fervent race among expansionist European powers for colonial dominance, spurred by ambitions of wealth, glory, and religious proselytism.
This era of exploration led to profound encounters and the subjugation of diverse cultures, documented meticulously by the European explorers-turned-ethnographers, travellers and missionaries. As the West ventured into the unknown East, the production of knowledge of these newly discovered territories both enabled and was produced by its conquest. It laid the groundwork for resultant colonial administrations that exploited the resources and labour of the regions they governed. Imperialism irreversibly altered the landscapes and societies they subjugated, paving the way for the vast colonial empires that would come to define the modern age, reaching even into the Malay Archipelago.
Al-Idrisi's Nuzhat al-mushtāq fī ikhtirāq al-āfāq ('The Excursion of One Eager to Penetrate the Distant Horizons'), known as the Tabula Rogeriana in the West.
Commissioned by Norman King Roger II, Muhammad al-Idrisi, a Muslim geographer and cartographer born in Ceuta of the Almoravid dynasty, crafted the Tabula Rogeriana ("The Book of Roger" in Latin), completed in 1154 at the Sicilian court in Palermo. Al-Idrisi's atlas, informed by his vast travels across North Africa and Al-Andalus, integrated knowledge from Muslim merchants and explorers about Africa, the Indian Ocean, and the Far East, combining it with data from Norman voyagers to produce one of the most advanced medieval world maps.
Image courtesy of Konrad Miller. Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.
During the 16th century, the Sultanate (kingdom) of Brunei was one of the most powerful Malay states in Southeast Asia, extending its influence along the whole of Borneo’s northern coast and as far as Manila Bay. In time, its grip over neighbouring polities was greatly curtailed by its rival, the Sulu Sultanate, to the east, and by the advent of European colonial powers such as the Spanish in the Philippines and, in the 19th century, various British enterprises in Borneo: the Brooke dynasty of ‘White Rajahs’ in Sarawak, and the Chartered Company in Sabah.
The Brunei and Sulu Sultanates were the architects of Borneo's earliest governance structures, where the flow of rivers was central to trade and administration. The Brunei Sultanate's Jajahan system divided and managed its territories along these waterways, with its dependencies (jajahan) being territorially defined according to the valley of each river (sungai) or a major tributary forming the geographical core. By the 18th century, as the Brunei Sultanate's power waned, the Sulu Sultanate’s Datu system, where powerful Datu (lords) from the migrant communities asserted their influence over existing Jajahan areas, began to challenge the established order.
From Marudu Bay down to Kimanis Bay, the Sulu Sultanate’s territorial expansion seeped south, disrupting the coastal balance and drawing new settlers from the Southern Philippines to set up settlements under their patronage. These settlers, often engaged in maritime ventures and infamous for slave-raiding, integrated with the local Brunei and Kadazan-Dusun communities, altering the political establishments of the affected areas. The various leaders of these communities, like the Maharajah, Panglima, and Datu, developed their power bases by recruiting more followers, owning more slaves, and acquiring more territories for themselves. Some began to invade the Brunei Jajahan areas and, in some cases, were even appointed as Jajahan head chiefs by independent Brunei overlords.
Yet, integrating Sulu lords into the Jajahan structure proved complex. The Sulu Sultanate’s Datu system diffused power between the Sultan and the Datu themselves, with the Sultan maintaining power mainly through strategic alliances with influential and affluent lords. The independent and ambitious nature of the Datu, along with their disruptive activities like slave-raiding, undermined the peace and order that Jajahan sought to maintain. This discord and the Sultanates' inability to safeguard their domains planted the seeds for the eventual disintegration of their rule, accelerated by the arrival of European colonial powers ashore.
“At any rate, you will admit that your company cannot prevent us from dying for what we think are our rights.” (Singh, 2000, p. 188)
— Mat Salleh
This statement was uttered by Datu Mohammed Salleh to William C. Cowie, the managing director of the British North Borneo Chartered Company, during a critical peace talk in 1898. This declaration of defiance from the village chieftain of Lingkabau district and Sugut River, who later came to be known as Mat Salleh, captured the brewing resistance among the local leaders and indigenous communities of North Borneo. Oppressed by new taxation laws, they saw the Company's revenue-collection policies as a violation of their traditional rights.
From the outset, the Company adopted an expansionist policy, viewing each newly acquired river through grants as a source of revenue from duties and taxes, and potential profit from resource extraction and land sales. Yet, the autonomy of certain rivers, which were 'tulin'—those under the hereditary stewardship of local nobility—proved a significant obstacle to effectual rule. These independent rivers became lifelines for indigenous commerce and refuge for those resisting colonial control, thus eluding the Company’s regulatory grasp. The struggle was compounded by Brunei's politics, where the Sultan's absolute rule was checked by the entrenched autonomy of the nobility over their lands and followers, complicating the Company's acquisition of territorial concessions.
Resistance mounted as local leaders, who once wielded considerable influence under Bruneian or Sulu rule, found their authority eroded under the Company's dominion. Grappling with their diminished status, some openly defied the new order, sparking conflicts that challenged the Company's authority. This led to military engagements and punitive measures against the indigenous communities in rebellion. Amidst these colonial administrative manoeuvres, Mat Salleh rose from relative obscurity to become a unifying figure that galvanised a diverse coalition against the tides of foreign domination.
1. Singh, R. (2000). The making of Sabah 1865-1941: the dynamics of indigenous society. University of Malaya Press
1894: Tension at Sugut River
Suspected of the murder of two Iban traders, Mat Salleh's conflict with the British North Borneo Chartered Company (BNBCC) begins to escalate.
1895: Jambongan Standoff
Retaliation unfolds as Mat Salleh resists his attempted arrest by the Company at Jambongan, signaling the intensification of hostilities.
1897: Gaya Island Raid
Mat Salleh conducts a daring raid on the BNBCC’s settlement at Gaya Island, marking a significant act of defiance against colonial encroachment.
1898: The Menggatal Treaty
A momentary peace is achieved with the signing of the Menggatal Treaty between Mat Salleh and the Company, though the truce is tenuous.
1899: Renewed Hostilities in Tambunan
Disputes over the BNBCC’s continued presence in Tambunan prompt Mat Salleh to resume attacks, undermining the fragile peace.
1900: The Final Stand/Trial By Artillery Fire
Mat Salleh is reportedly killed by machine-gun fire, a critical blow to the resistance movement.
Post-1900: Legacy and Continued Resistance
Following Mat Salleh's supposed death, his followers persist in their struggle against British rule until 1915, when the BNBC secures full dominion over Sabah. Contrary to official reports by the British, oral histories of the indigenous communities suggest Mat Salleh may have survived, escaping with one of his wives, as the British failed to conclusively identify his body.
This exhibition concludes by inviting a re-reading of Datu Mohammed Salleh bin Datu Balu, positioning him within a dynastic context rather than the binary of an anti-colonial rebel or a national hero. It explores the layered resistance he led against colonial imposition, hinting at a profound socio-political acumen that transcended mere rebellion as per the British colonial records. His story, woven into the annals of Sabah's history, transcends the simplistic labels often assigned by singular perspectives of established historical narratives.
The artifacts on display, drawn from the NUS Libraries’ collections, are not just relics; they are a testament to the complexities of colonial rule and the sophisticated strategies of control that went beyond overt domination. Understanding Datu Mohammed Salleh requires an examination that goes beyond the colonial documentation, which often frames the narrative within the context of imperial conquest, overlooking the indigenous agency. Contemporary historiography must incorporate a diverse range of sources, including oral histories, indigenous records, and cultural memory, to reconstruct a more balanced historical narrative.
As visitors engage with this narrative and the tangible evidence of empire-making, they are encouraged to reflect on these understated modalities of power and the imperative to rethink historical narratives. The exhibition does not seek to resolve Datu Mohammed Salleh's story of resistance but to open it up, challenging us to consider how history is crafted and how figures like him are situated within it. It is an invitation to continue the discourse on colonialism's legacies, encouraging a decolonised understanding of Malay(si)a's past, to move beyond reductive historical interpretations.
Established in 1881 as the North Borneo Provisional Association Limited and restructured in 1882 as the British North Borneo Chartered Company, this entity, modelled after the British East India Company, began administering North Borneo, present-day Sabah, Malaysia. Founded primarily for commercial exploitation of resources, territorial concessions in North Borneo were obtained by Mr. Gustavus Baron von Overbeck, a German businessman and Austro-Hungarian consul, with financial backing from Alfred and Edward Dent, from the Sultanates of Brunei and Sulu.
Overbeck's departure in 1879 led Alfred Dent to assume management, serving as the founder and first chairman of the chartered company. A Governor, Legislative Council, and Civil Service, under the Company's Court of Directors, oversaw governance, merging administrative responsibilities with the pursuit of commercial interests in the territory's natural resources and agriculture, until its dissolution in 1953. North Borneo became a protectorate of the British Empire in 1888 but the Company remained involved with the territory until 1946, when administration was fully assumed by the Crown colony government. After World War II, North Borneo transitioned into a British colony until it became part of Malaysia in 1963.
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The logo and motto (‘Pergo et Perago’, which means "I persevere and I achieve" in Latin) of the Company. Image courtesy of British North Borneo Herald (Digitalisat). Wikimedia Commons. Public domain. |
The Court of Directors of the Company, which sat in London circa 1890s Image courtesy of Dr. Johnstone and A.J. West (Officers of the British North Borneo Chartered Company), from "Views of British North Borneo," printed by W. Brown & Co., Limited, London, 1899. Wikimedia Commons. Public domain. |
Datu Mohammed Salleh bin Datu Balu, commonly known as Mat Salleh, is celebrated in the annals of Malaysia's history as a national Sabahan warrior-hero. His renown stems from his leadership and military prowess in challenging the British colonial administration in North Borneo.
With Suluk roots tracing back to his father's family in Kampung Lingkabau and Bajau-Dusun lineage from his mother, he unified supporters from various ethnic communities across a significant geographical area, which included the Bajau, Brunei, Dusun, Murut, Irranun, Paitan, Sungai, and others. His familial ties were notable; he was a cousin of Usman Sangkalang, connected to the North Borneo territory leased to the British North Borneo Chartered Company by the Sultan of Sulu in 1878. Mat Salleh's marriage to Dayang Bandang, the niece of Sultan Jamalul Kiram of Sulu, further strengthened his position within the indigenous communities.
Mat Salleh also leveraged symbols of authority and mysticism to affirm his role as a traditional local leader, a legacy from his father. His exceptional skill in unifying diverse communities for a united purpose, along with his strategic mobilisation of resources, was instrumental in the armed resistance against British attempts to undermine local sovereignty. His legacy endures today as a legendary figure of anti-colonial resistance.
Photograph titled 'Mr. Francis, Dr. Conyngham and native', taken at Tambunan River in 1899, the subject marked 'X' is supposedly Datu Mohammed Salleh.
Datu Mohammed Salleh bin Datu Balu, commonly known as Mat Salleh, a national Sabahan warrior-hero, is famed for his opposition to BNBCC rule. Of Suluk and Bajau-Dusun descent, he united diverse ethnic groups, including Bajau, Brunei, Dusun, Murut, Irranun, Paitan, Sungai, and others, against colonial encroachment. Related to Sulu royalty and aristocracy, his familial connections bolstered his influence. Employing symbols of traditional authority and mysticism, Mat Salleh's leadership galvanised significant resistance, cementing his status as an emblem of anti-colonial defiance.
Image courtesy of Sabah State Archive, from “Datu Paduka Mat Salleh (Hero of Sabah) 1894-1900”, printed by Times Offset (M) Sendirian Berhad, Malaysia, 2007. Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.
On 29th December 1877, in addition to the grant (left) given by Sultan Abdul Momin of Brunei on territories in North Borneo, another agreement was signed on the same day commissioning Baron von Overbeck with sovereign titles including Maharaja Sabah, Raja Gaya, and Raja Sandakan. A further grant (right) given by Sultan Jamal ul-Azam of Sulu on 22nd January 1878 augmented Overbeck’s authority over the eastern territories of northern Borneo under Sulu dominion, bestowing upon him the titles of Dato Bendahara and Raja Sandakan through an additional agreement. The interpretation of these agreements, written in Jawi and dating from 1877–78, are central to current debates over whether they constitute a "lease" or an outright "cession" of territory, a distinction that remains crucial to resolving the ongoing international dispute between Malaysia and the Philippines regarding territorial claims in the eastern parts of the state of Sabah.
Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.
The term "Amok," derived from the Malay 'meng-âmuk' meaning an act of losing self-control, and the Proto-Malayo-Polynesian 'hamuk' signifying “attack,” was first seen during the colonial era as a distinct sociopathy endemic to the Malays. Seen through an Orientalist perspective, it was categorised as a culture-specific form of social deviance marked by sudden, intense outbursts of violence in men following a period of brooding. However, in 1849, 'amok' was reclassified as a psychiatric disorder and shifted its understanding from a culture-bound syndrome to a universal psychiatric condition, now defined as an episode of sudden, incomprehensible violence and mass murder by an individual, a definition that remains current.
 Built in 1999, this memorial site pays tribute to Datu Mohammed Salleh bin Datu Balu at the very site in Kampung Tibabar, Tambunan, where he was reportedly killed. The site stood until its demolition in 2015.
Courtesy of CEphoto, Uwe Aranas. Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0. |
“This plaque marks the site of Mat Salleh's Fort which was captured by the North Borneo Armed Constabulary on the 1st February 1900. During this engagement, Mat Salleh, who for six years led a rebellion against the British Charted Company administration, met his death.” Courtesy of CEphoto, Uwe Aranas. Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0. |
References
This is a work in progress
